元朝奠基者及其后的治国理念

李悦 李杭

    说起“文化”，有很多不同的理解。现在许多人所说的文化，是把如何吃、如何喝、如何玩、如何乐；什么剪纸、皮影，爆肚、涮羊肉统统算在里面。近年来花了不少钱，着力搞些个影视作品,舞台演出，用些高科技手段，总算是文化了吧？其实这些都还是文化的细梢末节，是文化的一些外在表现形式。那么，什么才是一个时代文化的主要内涵呢？应该是那个时代的哲学思想和治国安民的理念。古今中外，都是如此。所以，我们研究草原文化，就应该着重研究真正反映草原民族在这方面留下的遗产。

    在《周易·丰卦》里，有一句说：“丰其蔀，日中见斗。”《丰卦》是讲如对待豪华与盛大 (On Luxury and Grandeur)的。“丰”的意思是多，大，丰满，盛大。《说文解字》：“丰，豆之丰满者也。”“蔀”是夏天为遮日头在房子上面所搭的席棚。“斗”就是北斗星。“见斗”形容天上很黑，仿佛能看见北斗星，形容遮蔽之严密。“丰其蔀，日中见斗。”全句是说，席棚遮天蔽日，以致在中午时分，天却黑得像夜间一样，仿佛可以看见北斗。喻在物质过于丰富的情况下，头脑却发昏，正午时分看见了星斗，眼前一片昏暗，其他东西倒看不见了。现在，漂亮的舞台有了，大笔的资金有了，先进的印刷设备有了，但忽然间文化的主要内涵却消失了。有的东西正如《老子·第十二章》里所描述的：“五色令人目盲；五音令人耳聋；五味令人口爽；驰骋田猎使人心发狂；难得之货使人之行妨。” 

    研究草原民族，不能不提起成吉思汗。成吉思汗十年（1215），蒙古军攻占燕京，成吉思汗得到耶律楚材作为他的主要谋臣。从此，成吉思汗对耶律楚材言听计从。耶律楚材是辽朝开国皇帝耶律阿保机的九世孙。父亲耶律履在金朝做过尚书右丞。他从小博览群书，天文、地理、历法、数学、医学，三教九流，无不精通。十 四年，耶律楚材随成吉思汗西征，常晓以征伐、治国、安民之道，屡立奇功，备受器重。二十一年，又随成吉思汗征西夏。所以说，成吉思汗之所以能建立起世界上最大的跨洲政体，除了武力之外，还靠的是耶律楚材所宣讲的那套文化。

    成吉思汗死后，窝阔台汗即位。窝阔台汗三年（1231），耶律楚材任中书令（宰相）。此后，他积极恢复文治，逐步实施“以儒治国” 的方案，有定制度、议礼乐、立宗庙、建宫室、创学校、设科举、拔隐逸、访遗老、举贤良、求方正、劝农桑、抑游惰、省刑罚、薄赋敛、尚名节、斥纵横、去冗员、黜酷吏、崇孝悌、赈困穷等措施。在政治、经济、文化各方面殚精竭虑，创举颇多。主要有保护农业，实行封建赋税制度；改革政治体制，提拔重用儒臣；反对屠杀生命，保护百姓生命；禁止掠民为驱，实行编户制度；反对扑买课税，禁止以权谋私；主张尊孔重教，整理儒家经典等等。

     现在的中国人提起成吉思汗，不由地要想起毛泽东的词《沁园春·雪》。这首词几乎所有的中国人都知道。词中说：“惜秦皇汉武，略输文采；唐宗宋祖，稍逊风骚；一代天骄，成吉思汗，只识弯弓射大雕。俱往矣，数风流人物，还看今朝。” “只识弯弓射大雕”，是说成吉思汗只知诉诸武力，没有文化，干事情不漂亮。要说干事情漂亮，还要看“今朝”的“风流人物”。但这是对成吉思汗的误解。从世界历史的角度出发，词中提到的那几位帝王，哪一个都比不上成吉思汗对世界历史的影响。所以，如今的草原人民，应当理直气壮地宣传成吉思汗创造的的促进历史发展的业绩，对成吉思汗和耶律楚材等君臣合力而为的文化建树，给予恰如其分的评价。

    成吉思汗另一个精神导师，是道士邱处机。1219 年，成吉思汗写下一封谦虚、恳切的诏书，邀请丘处机面晤。邱处机一行，于当年腊月，自山东莱州起程北上，行程万里，历尽千辛万苦，在1222年初夏，终于到达了大雪山 (今阿富汗兴都库什山)，见到了成吉思汗。在雪山避暑的行营，邱处机前后为成吉思汗讲道三次，所讲内容，主要是三点，即：一、长生之道，清心寡欲；二、一统天下，不嗜杀人；三、为治之方，敬天爱民。把这三点归结浓缩成四个字，就是“敬天爱民”，这最后一点把其他各点都包括在里面了。 邱的这趟西行，对历史发展的积极影响，远比唐僧玄奘的“西天取经”意义重大。

    “敬天”，就是要尊重客观规律，在人和客观世界的关系上保持谦虚谨慎的态度。人一有了地位，就希望长生。希望长生到不合理的长度，就是狂妄。历史上第一个狂妄之人要数秦始皇，他想找到不死药，就是说他想无限长地活下去。这说明他自我膨胀，已经狂妄到了不可理喻的地步。

     作为君主，成吉思汗也有长生的愿望。丘处机对他说：“世界上只有卫生之道，而无长生之药。” 短命之人皆因 “不懂卫生之道。” 而卫生之道以 “清心寡欲为要”，即 “一要清除杂念，二要减少私欲，三要保持心地宁静。”成吉思汗听进了邱道士的话，在关于长生的事情上有了一个比较理智的态度。

    世界上的三大宗教，即佛教、基督教和伊斯兰教，都说有某种行为的人死后可以进天堂或得到永生。而中国道家的经典“三玄”，即《周易》、《老子》和《庄子》， 从来不谈死后永生的事，也不谈长生不老。所以说，在哲学方面，道家有一个比较客观、正确的态度：把自己放在服从天道，即服从客观规律的谦卑的位置上。丘处机的这一套理论，是道家发展成道教之后的正确支脉。

     中国历史上为了长生而服丹药，最后造成早死的皇帝数不胜数。近代比较渴望长生的要数慈禧太后。她修了个颐和园，里面堆了个万寿山，园内四处都可见到“寿”字，餐具上也写着“万寿无疆”，说明了她的狂妄程度。在她之前，中国历代帝王家都不曾这么滥用的。

    现代中国在文革时期也广泛使用“万寿无疆”这个词。1949年至1976年，特别是1966至1976年，是中国历史长河中使用“万岁”一词最多的年代。

    地球在宇宙中，不过是一粒灰尘；任何人在地球上，好比是沧海一粟。“欲与天公试比高”，一点也抬高不了任何人，不过是某人不尊重客观规律的又一证据而已。如今宇宙、地球还在正常运转，周而复始，而历史上的君王安在哉？不过都成了一具具“帝羓”而已。

     丘处机所说的“爱民”，首先是不随便杀人，然后是关心民众的疾苦。在丘处机和成吉思汗作这些谈话之前，蒙古人在攻城略地之时，凡遇抵抗，城破之后都要屠城。成吉思汗后来采纳了丘处机的意见，传令止杀。在这之后，屠杀就大为减少。后人对此有很高的评价，认为丘处机“救生灵于鼎镬之中，夺性命于刀锯之下”，“一言止杀，始知济世有奇功”。

    《周易·中孚卦》是讲有关重要信念和准则（On Important Beliefs and Codes of Conduct）的,里有一句重要的话：“虞吉，有它不燕。”《说文解字》：“虞，仁兽也。食自死之肉。”就是不杀生。“虞吉”，就是虞这种兽，吉祥。“有它” ，不这样的话，有其他做法的话。“燕”，安定，闲适。这一全句的意思是说：“不乐杀人者，吉祥。不这样的话，自己也得不到安宁。”《老子·七十四章》中也说：“民不畏死，奈何以死惧之？若民恒畏死，而为奇者，吾得而杀之，孰敢？恒有司杀者杀。夫代司杀者杀，是谓代大匠斫。夫代大匠斫者，则希不伤其手矣。” 大致意思是说：乐杀人者最终往往会伤到自己。这两种说法实际上是一致的。《周易》的话说在三千多年前，《老子》说在两千多年前，古今中外的无数事例，证明了这些论述的正确性。这些论述和西方哲学也有一致性。古希腊哲学的先驱苏格拉底就认为，哲学的根本任务是如何使人得到幸福，而世界的本质是什么则是微不足道的问题。

    中国历史上最短的朝代，是五代时期的后汉。由于其当政者乃军人集团，乐杀人，三年就灭亡了。1972年，林彪刚刚自取灭亡， 毛泽东即下令先行印刷发行已经校点，但尚未印发的几部《二十四史》中的《新五代史》一书。其主要目的，就是让世人了解后汉史，意在了解林彪军人集团的危害和败亡的必然性。从世界范围看，从希特勒到墨索里尼，从斯大林到波尔布特，直到前不久的萨达姆和卡扎菲，这些人没有一个得到好下场的。他们的共同点就是乐杀人。直到现在还有人相信，在人类社会里没有普遍规律，就是所谓的天道。有人不承认，那是因为他们没有起码的常识，没有起码的文化，悲惨的命运或许正等着他们。

    林彪元帅就是一个缺乏某些常识的人。他在文革初期有一个讲话，大讲“政变经”，讲什么“儿子杀老子”，说“政权就是镇压之权”。整个讲话杀气腾腾，血腥暴力。这其实是天夺其魄，让他胡言乱语，自掘坟墓。林彪在毛泽东面前讲这么一套嗑儿，毛做何感想，这里边的简单道理林彪会不懂吗? 可见要么林素质低，真没文化；要么就是昏了头。 林最终连烧带摔，死在蒙古的温都尔汗，就是其蔑视天道的下场。

    林彪所说的“政权就是镇压之权”，是说政权的基本用处是可以杀人，即置人于死地。置谁于死地呢？上至国家主席，下至平民百姓，只要他们看着不顺眼，想置谁于死地就置谁于死地。他们还发明了“运动”杀人，从“大跃进”，“人民公社” 到“四清”，再到“文化大革命”(内蒙古“清理内人党”运动就发生在文革中，死伤无数)，运动一个接着一个，不知道置了多少人于死地。连林彪本人都在“文化大革命”运动中“被”死去，更遑论他人了。在文革中林的头衔是“副统帅”，他对文革中出现的滔天罪行难逃其咎，所以死有余辜。

    成吉思汗死后，被葬在现蒙古国肯特省一个叫做起辇谷的地方；而林彪的葬身之地也在蒙古国肯特省的荒原上，离温都尔汗不远。两个历史人物，一个认识到要止杀人，一个乐此不疲地要杀人，相差几百年，却葬在了同一地点，这可真是历史的巧合。如果我们能在当地设一个衣冠冢，供后人凭吊，思考，对此可作一对联，上联是：“成吉思汗留芳千古”，下联是：“林彪元帅遗恨万年”，横批就是《周易》里那句著名的话：“虞吉有它不燕”。

    成吉思汗之后，他的孙子忽必烈继承他的事业，于1271年在中国大地建立了元朝。“元” 这个字撷取于《周易》第一卦中的第一个字，意思是“天下第一”，“以人为本”。更详细的解释，请参阅关于《周易》的专著《历史无往不复》（2011年广西师大出版社出版）。从这点来看，忽必烈不仅继承了成吉思汗的事业，也继承了成吉思汗所崇尚的、丘处机教导他的道家思想，即“敬天爱民” 的思想。

    忽必烈的政绩，已有正史记载。这里只列举几件，就能看到他关注的是什么。他修复了全帝的道路，并在道路两旁种上树遮阳，在每隔一定的距离上建商旅客栈。把 20多万匹马分发给各驿站，用于帝国邮政。为保证北京的粮食供应，他修复和开通了大运河，使大米经运河从中国中部运往都城。为了备荒，他恢复了国家粮食平准的政策。在丰年，国家收购余粮，贮藏于国仓。当荒年谷价上涨时，开仓免费分发谷物。还组织了公众救济，1260年法令要求地方长官对老学者、孤儿、病弱者提供救济。1271年的又一道法令号召建医院，稻米和玉米定期分发给急需的家庭。据马可·波罗说，忽必烈本人每天就要接济3万穷人。并且，在史书中没有发现他大批迫害无辜的记载。

    既然如此，为什么元朝不到一百年就灭亡了呢？元朝最失败的地方就是把臣民划为4个等级，即蒙古人、色目人、中国人和南人。由于蒙古统治者对其他种族的歧视政策，惹来了其他种族民众的剧烈反抗，“八月十五杀鞑子” 获得热烈响应。类似的事情在印度也发生过。直到1945年，印度和巴基斯坦还同在一个国家内，即印度。但印度教把人分为四大种姓，渐次从高贵到低贱。时间一长，出身低贱的人就愤怒了：先是脱离印度教加入伊斯兰教，然后索性脱离了印度，成立了巴基斯坦国。如今印度和巴基斯坦仍然是死敌，并互相把核武器瞄准对方。把自己封为上等人的结果，反而是被下等人所抛弃。清朝统治者犯了同样的错误。孙中山等人一声“驱逐鞑虏，恢复中华”，把大多数中国人说得热血沸腾。

    殷鉴不远，40年前在文革中也有类似的现象。有人自称“红五类”，把其他人划为“黑九类” 等五花八门的下等人。在上学、工作等基本人权上，千方百计歧视人家。毛泽东就曾经说过：知识分子是臭老九，老九不能走。粉碎“四人帮”之后，这种血统论在很大程度上受到批判和摈弃，但是远没有得到肃清。在现实生活中，3000多年前《周易》就大力抨击的“同人于宗”的现象仍然比比皆是，不胜枚举。这种落后的意实形态是非常阻碍历史向前发展的。

     应该说，中国元朝的奠基者成吉思汗，还有其后的继承者，包括他们的大臣和谋士，留给我们很多正反两方面的文化遗产。这些宝贵的遗产需要我们很好地进行总结，真正做到“古为今用”。

2011年底于北京，伦敦

主要参考书目简列：《历史无往不复》，《周易》，《老子》，《庄子》，《新五代史》《元史》等；网上搜寻的部分资料。

INTRODUCTION (Excerpt)

History Repeats Itself 《历史无往不复》has attracted attention because it disregards the traditional view of the Book of Changes as a book of divination, and instead has opened it to new interpretations. The aim of this book is to marry the thoughts of the modern reader and that of the three thousand year old Book of Changes.

It can be said that the Book of Changes is the fountain of the Chinese civilisation. On a global scale, since the Chinese civilisation is the oldest written civilisation and the most varied in existence, therefore the importance of the Book of Changes cannot be overstated.

Although so important, few have read the Book of Changes in its entirety, Chinese as well as foreigners. Even fewer are those who have read it and understood it. According to the Jin Shu,[1] in the Western Jin dynasty (265-316 CE) it was extremely rare to find someone who understood the Book of Changes. Because the text is so concise, it is vulnerable to all sorts of interpretation.

The origins of the Book of Changes was written by Chang Ji (about 10^th century BCE).[2] Thereafter the major contributor was Confucius (550-477 BCE), in Shi Yi,[3] his interpretation of the Book of Changes. Because Confucius lived close in time to Chang Ji and because of his intelligence, his understanding of the Book of Changes was the most profound and accurate, and his writing the most elegant. Reading his interpretation, the Book of Changes becomes much more fathomable.

Confucius only began to read the Book of Changes in his old age. He fell in love with it immediately, apparently reading it to the extent that he wore down the leather straps attaching the bamboo strips on which the book was written three times. This anecdote is found in the Shi Ji[4] (91 BCE) and is a unique record of the effect the Book of Changes had on man.

The ancient Chinese used divination to forecast the future; over time pure superstition gave way to the use of past experience to forecast the future, and this forms the basis of ancient Chinese philosophy. This shift in thinking occurred three thousand years ago, and the Book of Changes is the literary manifestation of this change. Like the decline of the log rule after the advent of the calculator; reason began to replace divination in the analysis of the world. Instead of calling the Book of Changes a book of divination, it is more accurate to think of it as a work of ancient philosophy.

Chinese ancient philosophy is vastly different from Western philosophy. Western philosophy tried to use ideas to explain the world, and resulted in two world-views： idealism and materialism. The problem of this approach was that before one managed to explain the world according to one’s theory completely, one became tangled in one’s own world-view. In Chinese philosophy there is an example of this： Long Gongsun was a member of the Logicians’ school who is best known for his paradox of “white horses are not horses”. Gongsun uses sophism as a basis but ends up being entangled in his own sophistry.

An important school of thought in Chinese ancient philosophy did not use theories but used nature itself to describe nature, and the world itself to describe the world. It used one part of the world to explain a different part, and used a small area to describe a larger one. In other words, it used metaphors and fables for its philosophy, beginning with events instead of theories. The advantage of this approach is that it avoids wasting energy arguing about theories and at the same time makes elegant and interesting reading. The Book of Changes is just such a book. The fashion was begun by the Book of Changes and was continued by manifold Chinese philosophers over thousands of years. Zhuang Zi, well-known in the West, utilises this approach.

Many years before the Book of Changes, the Chinese had the ba gua.[5] Ba gua is similar to binary symbols in that it has a yang form and a yin form (like 1 and 0), as well as distinguishing between up, down and centre, as in a mathematical matrix. The ba gua has three bittes or positions, which correlate to the three positions in a matrix, and therefore both have eight permutations. This is the original of the name ba gua (trans： eight diagrams). Although the ba gua is similar to the binary system the ancient Chinese did not use it for calculation purposes, instead they used the shapes the trigrams made to represent eight different natural or man-made phenomena. Therefore the ba gua is not a collection of symbols for divination, but a kind of descriptive language. After a little explanation, this language can be understood by everyone.

The sixty-four hexagrams in the Book of Changes are composed of pairs of ba gua trigrams. Each hexagram is an image composed of two trigrams that each represent a natural or man-made phenomenon, which together have a combined philosophical meaning. Each hexagram can have six positions, which describe in more detail the six aspects of every natural of man-made phenomenon. The hexagrams and positions all have commentaries.

The Book of Changes is remarkable because of its ease of usage. If one has a particular problem, one can locate the corresponding hexagram and read the accompanying commentaries which tell one what to look out for, what problems are likely to arise and what strategies are possible. In theory it is used like a trigonometry table, with the question on one side and the answer on the other. Seen in this light, the Book of Changes is a handbook for life, a key that solves all sorts of complicated problems. The contents page clearly lists the sixty-four natural and man-made phenomena that can occur, and the following pages are modern interpretations of the three thousand year old commentaries for each hexagram.

The reader will discover that for each commentary the author has drawn on classical Chinese literature. From this it is clear to see the close relationship between the Book of Changes and the entire Chinese civilisation. The key to understanding the Book of Changes in fact lies within these ancient classics, particularly those written before the Qin (221-207BCE) and Western Han Dynasties (206BCE-25CE). Those texts were written the closest in time to the Book of Changes and therefore it is easier to find in them similar words and meanings that give us clues to the correct interpretation of this intricate book. This is why so many ancient classics are mentioned in this new interpretation, and why they play such an indispensible role. It is also this fact which helps to make this book distinctive.

This book uses modern language to interpret the Book of Changes, and lays clear the references used in its interpretation, as well as using modern life to make understandable analogies in important places. The distinctive aspects of this book are： 1) it offers a explanation of the text without altering any of the original words and using classical literature as its references; 2) the modern interpretation does not contradict anything in the Book of Changes or with the Shi Yi; 3) it does not contradict any modern scientific facts and does not contain superstition or mysticism; 4) apart from quoting ancient works, it uses simple, easy-to-understand language that will appeal to all kinds of readers.

Edited and translated by Xiaonuan Li [6]